Hunara: Journal of Ancient Iranian Arts and History

Abstract Hanashur, Sarmak, and Dohuk are villages in the Tasuj Rural District, in Dashti County, Bushehr Province. The Hanashuri, Sarmaki, and Dohuki dialects are varieties of the standard Persian language in Bushehr Province, south of Iran. This study is an etymological analysis of twenty words related to crafts spoken in the dialects in question. To conduct this research, ten speakers over fifty years of age and two young, literate speakers were interviewed. Their speech was recorded phonetically, and a linguistic corpus was developed using field and descriptive-analytical methods and desk research. These methods, combined with IPA transcription, were employed to collect and analyse the data. This study offers the etymology of twenty endangered words. Evidence shows that these varieties are from the southwestern Iranian language family and are remnants of one of the ancient Persian languages; they are related to other modern Iranian languages and dialects across the ancient, middle, and new historical periods. The vocabularies of these dialects have historically undergone phonetic changes, phonological processes (especially shift and deletion), and morphological and semantic changes. Furthermore, these dialects are more similar to Middle Persian in terms of word similarity and roots, while in terms of the absence of ergative features in their grammar, they resemble Old Persian.

Abstract Iranian identity did not disappear with the Arab invasion in the seventh century AD; rather, it persisted in various political, social, and even traditional and customary symbols and practices. This continuity is particularly prominent in the first five centuries AH. One of the main contexts in which this continuity can be observed is the advice literature. Although the style of writing advice texts, or andarz, is an Iranian tradition and the continuation of this practice during the Islamic centuries signifies the persistence of Iranian traditions and ideas, a precise examination of the literature—especially the earliest andarzes of the Islamic period—based on their main components: 1) the themes of the andarzes, and 2) the exemplary characters, reveals this continuity more clearly. This article, using a thematic analysis approach, not only considers the continuity of the andarz-writing style in the early Islamic centuries but also analyzes two main components in seven Persian andarzes from that period. The findings indicate that not only are many themes of these andarzes repetitions of those found in Pahlavi (Middle Persian) texts, but there is also a significant focus on ancient exemplary figures, particularly political ones.

Abstract In this paper, the focus is on examining astrological aspects related to Elam, particularly from the Mesopotamian perspective, emphasizing Assyrian and Babylonian texts from the 1^st Millennium BC. This brief exploration encompasses a diverse array of texts, including oracles, prophecies, and astrological predictions concerning Elam, its king, and the Elamite people. The discussed texts forecast significant events such as the demise of the Elamite king, Elam’s defeat in battles, its destruction, and other catastrophic social occurrences.

Abstract Near the village of Karajamirli (West Azerbaijan) archaeological excavations have revealed the center of one of the satrapies (according to Herodotus - XI satrapy) of the Persian-Achaemenid Kingdom. It appears that the residences of the provincial rulers in this satrapy were the Persian-Achaemenid palaces uncovered prior to the discovery at Karajamirli - Saritepe (Azerbaijan), Gumbati (Georgia) and Beniamin (Armenia). A distinctive characteristic shared by all these archaeological sites is the presence of colonnaded halls. Two types of column bases have been discovered at Karajamirli: angular plinth bases and the so-called bell-shaped bases. A similar situation is observed at Beniamin. These two types are common for the capital cities of Achaemenid Iran. In contrast, only bell-shaped column bases were unearthed at Gumbati and Saritepe. In Kakheti, northwest of the village of Sabatlo, the base of a column similar to the angular plinth bases of Karajamirli and Beniamin was discovered. Two kilometers northeast of Gumbati, in a place known as Saaklemo, a six-columned hall has been uncovered. At the same location, another part of a column base was found by the landowner. The column bases are bell-shaped; however, they differ from the bases of Gumbati and Karajamirli in terms of ornamentation. None of the tori of Saaklemo’s column bases have been preserved. Approximately 20 kilometers northwest of Saaklemo, near the village of Chabukiani (Kakheti), a limestone bell-shaped column base was discovered. The peculiarity of the base is that its torus is made separately and adjusted to the body. Chabukiani column base wa decorated in the identical fashion as the Saaklemo column bases. It is also probable that the torus of the Saaklemo bases were made separately. It is beyond doubt that all of these column bases were carved locally in the South Caucasus, implying the existence of specialized stone workshops. Creative activity appears to have continued in these workshops, as evidenced by the bases from Saaklemo and Chabukiani, for which no direct parallels have yet been identified in the imperial core. According to Burkhardt Wesenberg’s classification of Persian-Achaemenid bell-shaped bases, four types are distinguished. The bases from Chabukiani and Saaklemo show some similarities with types C and D, but we consider them to represent a different, fifth type (E). The bell-shaped bases from Gumbati, Saritepe, Beniamin, and Karajamirli belong to type B.

Abstract Finger rings with an engraved bezel made of gold, silver, and bronze were highly popular in Georgia during the 5^th to 2^nd centuries BCE. Most of these rings were found during the archaeological excavations of various cemeteries and burial complexes across the country.
Finger rings with an engraved bezel were usually used not only as jewelry, but also as a seal. Therefore, production and distribution of the finger rings were closely associated with the development of the society, its needs and private property.
These types of rings are considered to be of local production. However, the influence of Achaemenid glyptic is evident in the style of ornamentation and depictions. Some of the motifs are known from Graeco-Persian gems such as Persian women seated or standing holding various objects, Persian men with a stick, etc. Rings with depictions of a human, probably a priest, holding a barsom above a fine altar; double-protome animals; rhyta with a representation of a horses and ibex(?) protomes; fantastic creatures; animals; were common motifs in the Achaemenid art.
These materials confirm the significant influence of Achaemenid art across the entire territory of Georgia (East, West, and South) during the Late Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid periods (4^th and 3^rd century BCE).

Abstract The Sasanian spāh (army) is well known for its application of war doctrines and tactics, military architecture and logistics; however, there have been no academic analyses as to the role of geography, climate and the weaponization of the elements in warfare. This article examines (1) the spāh’s utilization of geographical elements in the planning of battles (2) consideration of climactic factors for battle planning, and (3) weaponization of water against enemy forces. The article concludes with the observation of the seminal role of environmental elements in impacting Sasanian military performance in set-piece battles and siege operations.

Abstract Scholars have long recognized the considerable importance of Armenian sources—particularly the accounts of Movses Khorenatsi—for the study of the ancient history of Media and Iran. Armenian sources take on particular significance when systematically compared with evidence preserved in the works of ancient Greek and Latin authors. In this respect, Khorenatsi’s accounts are at times comparable to those in classical sources, while in other instances they reveal historical realities concerning Armenian–Median and Armenian–Iranian relations. The present article focuses on Khorenatsi’s accounts of Anoysh and Tigranuhi, the women associated with Astyages, king of Media.

Abstract During the last years of the Republic, the image that the Romans had, regarding the Parthian population, was that of threat and hostility (Cicero’s Letters). However, the relationship between the two peoples changed over time, and in Tacitus and Suetonius’ texts, we find that the Parthian characters are treated individually. This is due to the fact that, from 30 BC to AD 180, some members of the Arsacid Royal Family lived in Rome as hostages, while members of other royal families from the East were hosted in the capital of the Empire. The reason for this “people exchange” was to build friendship treaties and to forge links between the Roman Republic and Empire and the royal families of the Eastern kingdoms. However, it is clear that this was used by the Roman Empire to highlight its political superiority over the Parthian Kingdom, because no member of the Roman Imperial Family was hosted elsewhere.
But which language was spoken in these encounters? Did the hostages leave any trace of their mother tongue in Rome? What do we know about the many emissaries sent by the Romans to negotiate with the Parthian Kingdom? In this paper, we will try to analyze the contexts of the linguistic exchanges we can find in the authors of that period, combining them with other information available to us, such as inscriptions and archeological data, in order to reconstruct the linguistic contacts in a multilingual community.

Abstract This article integrates a Kurigalzu II reading of the Berlin letter (VS 24.91) with other evidence for early Middle Elamite (ME I) history. In addition to Elamite evidence, key data comes from the Babylonian Chronicle P, which deals with two wars of Kurigalzu with Elam. It is argued here that Kurigalzu I defeated Tepti-ahar (Chronicle P ii), who agreed to a settlement that recognized Kurigalzu’s superior position. This agreement served both rulers very well, allowing Tepti-ahar to continue building Haft Tappeh Level II and eventually gain a strong position vis-à-vis Kurigalzu’s weaker successor Kadašman-Enlil I (HT 38). But the subsequent alliance of Burna-Buriaš II with Aššur-uballiṭ I led to a late ME I Elamite decline, reflected by Inšušinak-šar-īli not building at Haft Tappeh and Burna-Buriaš II eventually destroying Level II. As this alliance weakened, Šalla started to rebuild Haft Tappeh (Level III) late in Burna-Buriaš’s reign or shortly after, but weakened himself by a failed attack on the pro-alliance faction in Babylonia early in the reign of Kurigalzu II (CUSAS 17.61). This allowed a Hurrian-Elamite from the north, Ḫurbatila, to obtain the throne, with Šalla becoming his vassal and ceasing work at Haft Tappeh. Ḫurbatila was eventually defeated by Kurigalzu II (Chronicle P iii 10-19), who proceeded to thoroughly conquer Elam, destroying Haft Tappeh IV and exploiting his victory to install Pahir-iššan as a junior partner allied by marriage (start of ME II).

Abstract In Late Antiquity, the political and cultural influence of Sasanian Iran on Kartli (the pre-modern Georgian state known to classical and Byzantine authors as Iberia) was considerable. Hence, it is not astonishing at all that Georgian sources preserve a great amount of evidence concerning Iran and the Iranians. Though this body of evidence has long been a topic of lively interest among scholars, many aspects have yet to be studied in depth.
This paper investigates the data provided by the 11^th-century Georgian historian Leonti Mroveli, whose work, The Life of Georgian Kings and Their Progeny, serves as a primary source within the principal compendium of medieval Georgian historiography, Kartlis Tskhovreba (Life of Kartli), which is conventionally referred to in English as the Georgian Royal Annals or Georgian Chronicles.
According to Leonti Mroveli, the first Christian king of Kartli, Mirian, was the illegitimate son of a Sasanian shahanshah, identified by name as Ardashir. Some researchers, however, reject this claim, arguing that Leonti Mroveli fabricated this information to glorify the kings of Kartli.
In this paper, I will argue that the “Persian king” Ardashir mentioned by Leonti Mroveli should be identified with Hormizd I, the third ruler of the Sasanian dynasty, who is also referred to as Hormizd-Ardashir.

Abstract Until recently, little was known about the third Sasanian shahanshah, Hormizd I (Hormizd-Ardashir), whose short reign left no royal inscription. Scholars therefore reconstruct his biography through the inscriptipns of other Sassanian rulers and indirect evidences. This article offers an attempt to fill some missing parts of Hormizd I’s life and continues the author’s earlier studies. In previous works, the author identified the “King of the Persians Ardashir”, named by the eleventh-century Georgian historian Leonti Mroveli as the father of Mirian III, the first Christian king of Kartli (Iberia), with Hormizd-Ardashir. According to Leonti Mroveli, Mirian—born from Hormizd’s concubine—ascended the Kartlian throne at the age of seven through an agreement between Georgian and Iranian political elites. Leonti MroveIi describes the mutual benefits of this arrangement: Kartli avoided destructive Iranian raids without losing its religious identity, while Iran secured stability in a strategically crucial region of the Byzantine–Iranian rivalry. Kartli, as Leonti Mroveli notes, could offer the most effective defense of Iran from northern attacks. Although the medieval historian is silent on this point, the author’s earlier studies argue that the agreement also served Hormizd’s personal goal of ensuring that his own son—not his younger brother Narseh, king of Armenia and a likely heir—would succeed to the Sasanian throne. Hormizd’s early death prevented the realization of this plan, but it persisted thanks to the strong military force he left in Kartli and Mirian’s regent Mirvanoz, who governed the kingdom, including its religious sphere, until Mirian came of age. After the Shahanshah Narseh’s death, Mirian, according to Leonti Mroveli, launched a campaign into Iran in an attempt to implement his father’s “Georgian Project” and occupy the imperial throne. This article offers the first detailed analysis of that campaign and its narrative. Though previously dismissed as implausible, the account is shown here to be fully compatible with the historical context and therefore credible, despite the lack of direct corroboration. It reflects both Hormizd’s dynastic strategy and Mirian’s evolving political self-assertion.

Abstract Khosrow Anōšīravān is a renowned Iranian king, widely admired among Iranians, particularly for his good governance and tax reforms. His remembrances have been perpetuated in historical sources as well as in Persian literature. Persian stories about Khosrow Anōšīravān can be divided into two categories: 1) stories with historical origins; 2) fictional narratives. The former group may be useful for understanding historical events once the fictional components are removed. The latter group mainly serves as part of the folklore. Among the Persian literary stories featuring Khosrow and an elderly woman, there are two main stories each with a side story. Animal rights are hinted at in the side stories. This paper argues that the first main story, its side story, and the second main story are historical stories and there is evidence for approving their historical basis, while the second side story has no historical basis and seems to have emerged from folklore.

Abstract The arrival of Sasanian gems in the Kingdom of Kartli mainly starts from the 4^th century, and their intensive spread begins from the second half of the 5^th century and continues throughout the Sasanian period. Archaeological excavations have confirmed the presence of distinctive Sasanian glyptic motifs during this time, including the crescent moon with eight-pointed star, the pomegranate flower, the Zoroastrian fire altar (ātaš-dān), birds, gazelles, etc. This article examines the glyptic monuments featuring the Zoroastrian symbols of the ātaš-dān and the pomegranate flower found in Georgia. The study of these motifs is of great importance for analyzing the cultural, religious and political interactions of Kartli in the late antique and pre-feudal periods.
The Zoroastrian fire altar, i.e. ātaš-dān, in which the sacred fire was kept, is one of the symbols of Zoroastrianism. The ātaš-dān was considered a pillar of the Sasanian throne. Impressions depicting ātaš-dān (three instances) have been found in the regions of Samtvro, Pikrisgora and Karsniskhevi, dating back to the 4^th to 6^th centuries. Moreover, in Sasanian glyptic art, the pomegranate flower is associated with the triad of the three main deities of the Zoroastrian pantheon: Ahuramazda, Mithra and Anahita. Impressions featuring the pomegranate flower (two instances) have been found in the cemeteries of Samtvoro and Pikrisgora, dated to the 4^th-5^th centuries.
The research has established that the studied glyptic monuments are an integral part of Sasanian art, which reflected the political and religious processes in the region. Symbols related to the Zoroastrian religion brought from Sasanian Iran date back to the 4^th-6^th centuries. They are not recorded in large numbers on the territory of the Kingdom of Kartli. Accordingly, the distribution of seals with Zoroastrian symbols in the Kingdom of Kartli is not regarded intensive.

Abstract Throughout its history, Georgia was actively involved in the cultural life of the contemporary civilized world. Early  medieval Georgian art was formed and based on ancient local artistic traditions. At the same time, close relations with Eastern Christian and Byzantine cultural-religious centers contributed to the creation of the artistic language of the medieval Georgian church art. In its initial stage Georgian Christian art was also nourished by the Sasanian artistic tradition.
This paper discusses the Sasanian artistic influence on the Georgian reliefs of the early Middle Ages. I will demonstrate how some themes and motifs originating from Iran were interpreted and assimilated on the local ground. Special attention will be paid to the symbols of power and ornamentation motives. The oriental elements are also pronounced in dresses of noblemen. The examples of early medieval Georgian reliefs will be discussed within a vast cultural-political context to understand mentioned “borrowings” from the non-Christian visual vocabulary.