Hunara: Journal of Ancient Iranian Arts and History

Abstract This special issue comprises six articles that explore various aspects of nature as reflected in ancient Iranian sources.

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Abstract This paper focuses on the etymology of Indo-Iranian words for camphor, particularly on Skt. karpūra-, briefly referring also to Gr. κέρβερος ‘Cerberus’. I argue that this form (of non-Indo-European origin) was modified due to secondary re-etymologization under a group of phonetically similar words with partly similar meanings (‘spotted, dappled’ etc.), some of which may refer to cheetah.

Abstract The Persepolis Fortification archive provides new insights into the study of Old Iranian, particularly regarding the debate over the "Median language". The archive contains numerous Iranian names in Elamite transcription, allowing for the identification of phonetic differences between Old Persian and Median names. The high frequency of certain names enables detailed prosopographic analyses, revealing that individuals with varying spellings of their names may in fact be the same person. This is illustrated by the case of Ziššawiš, a vice director and deputy satrap in Persepolis. The variations in the spelling of his name suggest dialectal differences within the Persian heartland. While the accuracy of spelling was likely high, all variations were allowed, indicating that Median should be viewed as a dialect rather than a separate language.

Abstract Throughout their long and rich history, the Iranian people have created marvellous monuments of material and spiritual culture and made a big contribution to the progress of world civilization.
A very important place in Iran’s history belongs to the Achaemenid period, when, after the establishment of the Achaemenid State 25 centuries ago, firm foundations of Iranian statehood and culture were laid. This period played an important role in the historical and cultural development of many other countries, which were part of the Achaemenid State.

Abstract The silver plate in the Wyvern Collection, London, depicts a scene of the mounted bear hunt. The article examines the scene from an iconographic perspective, researching the composition, the traditions of similar themes in Sasanian and related arts, as well as the details of depicted elements of material culture. The research confirms the origin of the plate from the territory of modern Afghanistan and associates the scene with the model represented in art of the Kushan Empire on which Sasanian elements were placed. The iconographic details can allow dating of the plate to the fifth/sixth centuries AD.

Abstract One of the most intriguing episodes in the history of ancient Armenia and Achaemenid Persia is associated with Arakha, son of H/Ḫaldita, who seized control of Babylon and proclaimed himself king under the name Nebuchadnezzar IV. Unfortunately, our only primary source regarding Arakha’s revolt is the Behistun inscription, which has resulted in various scholarly interpretations―many of which lack coherence or, at times, even contradict the information provided by the primary sources. This article proposes a new hypothesis concerning Arakha’s identity, which will be examined in correlation with other source-based references.

Abstract This article examines the historical ties between ancient Iran and the Caucasus in martial culture and military history from the Mede era to the late Sassanian period. Initial phases of Caucasus-Iranian Plateau contacts are traced from the bronze ages up to military interactions between the Saka Paradraya (Scythians) of the south Russia-Ukraine regions arriving through the Caucasus to invade the Mede realms in western Iran and the Near East. Military and martial links between the Caucasus and Iran during the Teispid-Achaemenid era progressed considerably, as evidenced with the presence of Armenian contingents in the Teispid-Achaemenid Kingdom’s spāda (army), the Caucasian Albanians appearing later in 4^th century CE, with Caucasian Iberians not reported among the spāda’s contingents, while sharing military systems with the wider Iranian realms, notably the Scythians and their Sarmatian successors. Armenian, Caucasian Albanian and Iberian/ancient Georgian links in shared martial traditions, military lexica, military systems (notably cavalry warfare) of the ensuing Arsacid Kingdom’s spād (army) and Sassanian Kingdom’s spāh (army) are examined up to the final years of pre-Islamic (Sassanian) Iran in the 7^th century CE.

Abstract The myth of an archetypal hero, either divine or human, slaying a dragon-serpent who is most often blocking access to a body of water is very ancient. Various water-related rituals and their attendant myths arose out of the vital dependence of the prehistoric Indo-European peoples on rivers to maintain their way of life. “Killing a dragon” was a symbolic way of "freeing of the waters" and also exercising control over the potentially chaotic vicissitudes of flowing water. In performing this task, the dragon-slaying hero ensured fertility and thus the continued survival of his community.  In light of the mythological connection between dragons and water, this paper considers whether dragon-slaying myths can be further connected to the Iranian water goddess, Arəduuī Sūrā Anāhitā and the Avestan saošiiant.

Abstract The existence of the Sasanian Kingdom is considered an important facet of the Roman Empire’s downfall because it is believed the Sasanians were more competent or powerful than their predecessors - the Parthian Kingdom. This paper compares the total power of the Parthian and Sasanian kingdoms and concludes they are not dissimilar. In contrast, the total power of the Roman Empire decreased. Thus, I argue that while the Sasanian Kingdom contributed to the Roman Empire’s downfall, its advent should not be seen as a major cause.

Abstract This study examines glyptic materials from the Nastagisi cemetery in Eastern Georgia, including two stone scaraboids and a transparent greenish glass intaglio. Although, these finds provide important evidence for cultural and artistic interactions between Georgia and the wider Achaemenid and post-Achaemenid world. The stone scaraboids, based on stylistic parallels, are likely imports and are attributed to the Bern group of the Graeco-Persian glyptic tradition, whereas the origin of the glass intaglio remains uncertain, suggesting local production influenced by Graeco-Persian art. The presence of these glyptic materials in the later graves dated to the second-first centuries BCE, also illustrates long circulation and continued prestige of Achaemenid-derived glyptic traditions in the South Caucasus. Overall, the Nastagisi materials demonstrate both the persistence of Graeco-Persian artistic traditions and their adaptation within a local Georgian context.

Abstract The Achaemenid period plays a uniquely important role in the millennia-long history of Armenian-Iranian relations. During the two hundred years of Persian rule, Armenia played a significant role in the Achaemenid state’s governance system, and apart from the rebellion against Darius I in 522-521 BC, there are no other historical records of Armenian uprisings against Persia.
According to accounts by Movses Khorenatsi and Thovma Artsruni, Armenians and Persians maintained allied relations in the 6^th century BC, working together to free themselves from Median domination. Medieval Armenian historians speak highly of the friendly relationship between Cyrus the Great and Tigran Haykazn. Thovma Artsruni notes that Armenian auxiliary forces actively participated in the Persian army’s wars against the Medes, Lydians, and Babylonians.
Remarkably, both Tigran Haykazn and Cyrus the Great are portrayed by Movses Khorenatsi and Thovma Artsruni as wise rulers, guided by wisdom and, in some ways, connected to Ahura Mazda. The comparison of the relationship between Tigran and Cyrus suggests that, in ancient times, Armenians and Persians were not seen as opposing forces, and the Persians did not assert dominance over the Armenians. In the “we” vs. “them” dichotomy, Armenians were positioned in the “we” category alongside the Medes and Persians, while those living farther away were seen as “them”.

Abstract This paper examines the complex relationship between Xusrō II and the Christians of Ērānšahr (the Sāsānian Kingdom). By the time he assumed power, Ērānšahr had a significant population of Christians who belonged to distinct churches. Despite Xusrō II’s efforts to position himself as a patron of Christianity and his engagement with its practices, he faced hostility from certain Christian writers. This tension stemmed from the inherent challenges of balancing the interests and doctrinal differences of various Christian sects within the kingdom. The Church of the East in particular perceived Xusrō II’s decisions, while often pragmatic, as threats to its power and influence. The historical memory of past persecutions and the martyrdom tradition within Ērānšahr further fueled negative portrayals of Xusrō II in Christian texts. Ultimately, the interplay of religious rivalries, political maneuvering, and the weight of historical memory shaped the complicated and often contentious relationship between Xusrō II and the Christians he ruled.

Abstract The Mesopotamian cities in the Early Bronze Age were centers of technological innovation and had lasting influence on the history of mankind. A decisive factor in the urban culture of Mesopotamia was the trade network for the imports of metals and stones. The outstanding importance of the Central Zagros as a passway between the Central Asia and the Mesopotamian lowlands through which the regional leading east-west route, the Great Khorasan Road, proceeds west across the Zagros Mountains into the Qasr-e Shirin Plain and Iraq is widely acknowledged. The Mesopotamian archaeological finds (metals, stones) and the rich textual evidence in cuneiform bear testimony to this. Despite its significance, particularly with respect of its archaeology and historical geography, it has been the subject of relatively little study. In view of the position of the area in the Near Eastern archaeology in virtue of its strategic location between two major cultural realms, namely Central Asia and Mesopotamia, the present paper draws on written and glyptic evidence to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the region in the period contemporary with the Akkadian Mesopotamia. The astonishing upsurge in the Mesopotamian texts in this period, which underpin our study, has furnished important information on the status of the area in question. Results of the present study suggest that a number of Akkadian glyptic designs probably represent the eastern mountain of Mesopotamia.

Abstract In addition to the many realms of fine arts, the issues of Georgian-Iranian cultural interactions of pre-Islamic periods that merit our particular interest were adequately expressed in such a minor form of arts as glyptic, beginning from the Achaemenian days up to the Sasanian period. Glyptic artifacts, which demonstrate part of Iranian culture, were discovered during various archaeological excavations in Georgia. While some of these items were imported, others were produced locally under the influence of Iran. The discovery of metal shield rings in Georgia, particularly in the eastern region that was once part of ancient Iberia, has posed a significant challenge for historians. These artifacts are believed to be locally produced and some may reflect artistic patterns associated with the Achaemenid kingdom. The majority of the Sasanian artifacts discovered in Georgia are excellent seals. They began to arrive in East Georgia mainly from the 4^th century AD. Due to the beginning of intensive trade with Sasanian Iran and the gradual strengthening of Iran's political positions in the South Caucasus, which was followed by the dissolution of the Kartli kingdom in 532, the widespread use of Sasanian seals started in the second half of the 5^th century and continued during the 6^th and 7^th centuries. Nearly all of the common themes and subjects found in Sasanian glyptics can be observed in the glyptic artifacts in Georgia. These include depictions of nobility, deities, animal-versus-hero fights, fantastical creatures, humans, birds, and plants, as well as monograms. While some of these artifacts were imported, others were crafted under the influence of Sasanian art and became distinguished examples of local productions.

Abstract The relationship between Georgia and Iran dates back to ancient times. From the early reign of the Achaemenid rulers, these relations became increasingly intensive. The Achaemenid Kingdom had connections with both Iberia (Kartli) and the Georgian Kingdom of Colchis. These interactions were distinguished by their diversity, encompassing political, military, cultural, religious, and trade-economic aspects.
The Achaemenid shahs extended their political influence over vast territories, including the South Caucasus and its inhabitants, particularly Armenian and some Georgian tribes. To consolidate their power, the Achaemenids implemented administrative reforms in the territories under their control, dividing them into satrapies. These satrapies included parts of Georgia as well. Each satrapy, depending on its status, had specific obligations toward the central authority (the Achaemenid shahs).
It is noteworthy that the obligations of the Kingdoms of Colchis and Iberia (which were part of the 18^th and 19^th satrapies) differed from those of other satrapies. Unlike others, they enjoyed certain privileges, which indicate some unique characteristics of Georgian-Iranian relations.
An important aspect of these relations was the religious factor. Zoroastrianism, which was widely practiced in Achaemenid Persia, was not unfamiliar to Georgia. The spread of Zoroastrianism in Georgia is confirmed by various archaeological findings. The traces of Zoroastrian influence in Georgia become more evident toward the later period of Achaemenid rule.

Abstract The history of Armenia during the destruction of the Achaemenid Kingdom is fragmentarily presented in extant sources, which do not allow forming a complete picture of the history of Armenia. In this regard, Arrian’s account of the 2nd century AD refers to the participation of Armenians in the Battle of Gaugamela, which took place in 331 BC. This data has sparked controversy in Armenology, and it is not an isolated exception. The mention of Armenian involvement in the Battle of Gaugamela is important in the sense that after two hundred years of Achaemenid rule, Armenia regained its independence and conducted independent politics in international relations. The Arrian’s account is also important in identifying Orontes and Mithraustes, who led the Armenians.

Abstract This article presents a comparative study of bestiaries in Achaemenid and Sasanian glyptics, based on seal impressions from archival corpora. A systematic comparison of animal representations is carried out within the framework of zoo-iconography. This method makes it possible to formally determine the species represented in each of the bestiaries, and leads to the study of the evolution of their representation between Classical Antiquity and Late Antiquity in Iran. The practice of zoo-iconography leads to an environmental approach that questions the evolution of the animal kingdom as depicted in the two bestiaries by comparing them with archaeozoological data.

Abstract Iranian identity did not disappear with the Arab invasion in the seventh century AD; rather, it persisted in various political, social, and even traditional and customary symbols and practices. This continuity is particularly prominent in the first five centuries AH. One of the main contexts in which this continuity can be observed is the advice literature. Although the style of writing advice texts, or andarz, is an Iranian tradition and the continuation of this practice during the Islamic centuries signifies the persistence of Iranian traditions and ideas, a precise examination of the literature—especially the earliest andarzes of the Islamic period—based on their main components: 1) the themes of the andarzes, and 2) the exemplary characters, reveals this continuity more clearly. This article, using a thematic analysis approach, not only considers the continuity of the andarz-writing style in the early Islamic centuries but also analyzes two main components in seven Persian andarzes from that period. The findings indicate that not only are many themes of these andarzes repetitions of those found in Pahlavi (Middle Persian) texts, but there is also a significant focus on ancient exemplary figures, particularly political ones.

Abstract In this paper, the focus is on examining astrological aspects related to Elam, particularly from the Mesopotamian perspective, emphasizing Assyrian and Babylonian texts from the 1^st Millennium BC. This brief exploration encompasses a diverse array of texts, including oracles, prophecies, and astrological predictions concerning Elam, its king, and the Elamite people. The discussed texts forecast significant events such as the demise of the Elamite king, Elam’s defeat in battles, its destruction, and other catastrophic social occurrences.

Abstract Near the village of Karajamirli (West Azerbaijan) archaeological excavations have revealed the center of one of the satrapies (according to Herodotus - XI satrapy) of the Persian-Achaemenid Kingdom. It appears that the residences of the provincial rulers in this satrapy were the Persian-Achaemenid palaces uncovered prior to the discovery at Karajamirli - Saritepe (Azerbaijan), Gumbati (Georgia) and Beniamin (Armenia). A distinctive characteristic shared by all these archaeological sites is the presence of colonnaded halls. Two types of column bases have been discovered at Karajamirli: angular plinth bases and the so-called bell-shaped bases. A similar situation is observed at Beniamin. These two types are common for the capital cities of Achaemenid Iran. In contrast, only bell-shaped column bases were unearthed at Gumbati and Saritepe. In Kakheti, northwest of the village of Sabatlo, the base of a column similar to the angular plinth bases of Karajamirli and Beniamin was discovered. Two kilometers northeast of Gumbati, in a place known as Saaklemo, a six-columned hall has been uncovered. At the same location, another part of a column base was found by the landowner. The column bases are bell-shaped; however, they differ from the bases of Gumbati and Karajamirli in terms of ornamentation. None of the tori of Saaklemo’s column bases have been preserved. Approximately 20 kilometers northwest of Saaklemo, near the village of Chabukiani (Kakheti), a limestone bell-shaped column base was discovered. The peculiarity of the base is that its torus is made separately and adjusted to the body. Chabukiani column base wa decorated in the identical fashion as the Saaklemo column bases. It is also probable that the torus of the Saaklemo bases were made separately. It is beyond doubt that all of these column bases were carved locally in the South Caucasus, implying the existence of specialized stone workshops. Creative activity appears to have continued in these workshops, as evidenced by the bases from Saaklemo and Chabukiani, for which no direct parallels have yet been identified in the imperial core. According to Burkhardt Wesenberg’s classification of Persian-Achaemenid bell-shaped bases, four types are distinguished. The bases from Chabukiani and Saaklemo show some similarities with types C and D, but we consider them to represent a different, fifth type (E). The bell-shaped bases from Gumbati, Saritepe, Beniamin, and Karajamirli belong to type B.

Abstract Finger rings with an engraved bezel made of gold, silver, and bronze were highly popular in Georgia during the 5^th to 2^nd centuries BCE. Most of these rings were found during the archaeological excavations of various cemeteries and burial complexes across the country.
Finger rings with an engraved bezel were usually used not only as jewelry, but also as a seal. Therefore, production and distribution of the finger rings were closely associated with the development of the society, its needs and private property.
These types of rings are considered to be of local production. However, the influence of Achaemenid glyptic is evident in the style of ornamentation and depictions. Some of the motifs are known from Graeco-Persian gems such as Persian women seated or standing holding various objects, Persian men with a stick, etc. Rings with depictions of a human, probably a priest, holding a barsom above a fine altar; double-protome animals; rhyta with a representation of a horses and ibex(?) protomes; fantastic creatures; animals; were common motifs in the Achaemenid art.
These materials confirm the significant influence of Achaemenid art across the entire territory of Georgia (East, West, and South) during the Late Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid periods (4^th and 3^rd century BCE).