Hunara: Journal of Ancient Iranian Arts and History

Abstract This special issue comprises six articles that explore various aspects of nature as reflected in ancient Iranian sources.

Abstract This paper focuses on the etymology of Indo-Iranian words for camphor, particularly on Skt. karpūra-, briefly referring also to Gr. κέρβερος ‘Cerberus’. I argue that this form (of non-Indo-European origin) was modified due to secondary re-etymologization under a group of phonetically similar words with partly similar meanings (‘spotted, dappled’ etc.), some of which may refer to cheetah.

Abstract The myth of an archetypal hero, either divine or human, slaying a dragon-serpent who is most often blocking access to a body of water is very ancient. Various water-related rituals and their attendant myths arose out of the vital dependence of the prehistoric Indo-European peoples on rivers to maintain their way of life. “Killing a dragon” was a symbolic way of "freeing of the waters" and also exercising control over the potentially chaotic vicissitudes of flowing water. In performing this task, the dragon-slaying hero ensured fertility and thus the continued survival of his community.  In light of the mythological connection between dragons and water, this paper considers whether dragon-slaying myths can be further connected to the Iranian water goddess, Arəduuī Sūrā Anāhitā and the Avestan saošiiant.

Abstract The Mesopotamian cities in the Early Bronze Age were centers of technological innovation and had lasting influence on the history of mankind. A decisive factor in the urban culture of Mesopotamia was the trade network for the imports of metals and stones. The outstanding importance of the Central Zagros as a passway between the Central Asia and the Mesopotamian lowlands through which the regional leading east-west route, the Great Khorasan Road, proceeds west across the Zagros Mountains into the Qasr-e Shirin Plain and Iraq is widely acknowledged. The Mesopotamian archaeological finds (metals, stones) and the rich textual evidence in cuneiform bear testimony to this. Despite its significance, particularly with respect of its archaeology and historical geography, it has been the subject of relatively little study. In view of the position of the area in the Near Eastern archaeology in virtue of its strategic location between two major cultural realms, namely Central Asia and Mesopotamia, the present paper draws on written and glyptic evidence to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the region in the period contemporary with the Akkadian Mesopotamia. The astonishing upsurge in the Mesopotamian texts in this period, which underpin our study, has furnished important information on the status of the area in question. Results of the present study suggest that a number of Akkadian glyptic designs probably represent the eastern mountain of Mesopotamia.

Abstract This article presents a comparative study of bestiaries in Achaemenid and Sasanian glyptics, based on seal impressions from archival corpora. A systematic comparison of animal representations is carried out within the framework of zoo-iconography. This method makes it possible to formally determine the species represented in each of the bestiaries, and leads to the study of the evolution of their representation between Classical Antiquity and Late Antiquity in Iran. The practice of zoo-iconography leads to an environmental approach that questions the evolution of the animal kingdom as depicted in the two bestiaries by comparing them with archaeozoological data.

Abstract The Sasanian spāh (army) is well known for its application of war doctrines and tactics, military architecture and logistics; however, there have been no academic analyses as to the role of geography, climate and the weaponization of the elements in warfare. This article examines (1) the spāh’s utilization of geographical elements in the planning of battles (2) consideration of climactic factors for battle planning, and (3) weaponization of water against enemy forces. The article concludes with the observation of the seminal role of environmental elements in impacting Sasanian military performance in set-piece battles and siege operations.

Abstract Khosrow Anōšīravān is a renowned Iranian king, widely admired among Iranians, particularly for his good governance and tax reforms. His remembrances have been perpetuated in historical sources as well as in Persian literature. Persian stories about Khosrow Anōšīravān can be divided into two categories: 1) stories with historical origins; 2) fictional narratives. The former group may be useful for understanding historical events once the fictional components are removed. The latter group mainly serves as part of the folklore. Among the Persian literary stories featuring Khosrow and an elderly woman, there are two main stories each with a side story. Animal rights are hinted at in the side stories. This paper argues that the first main story, its side story, and the second main story are historical stories and there is evidence for approving their historical basis, while the second side story has no historical basis and seems to have emerged from folklore.